An analysis of governance factors influencing performance of selected smallholder dairy cooperatives in Zimbabwe.

Cooperatives are organisations owned and operated by individuals or groups that come together for mutual benefit including pooling of resources for the purchase of inputs and marketing of products. Marketing of milk is through dairy cooperatives where the milk collection centres are mandated to help integrating smallholder farmers into competitive markets. The study investigated governance structures of five smallholder dairy schemes purposively selected based on their agroecological regions in Zimbabwe. The aim of the study was to explore how the governing boards conduct their business, particularly marketing milk, and how this affects allocation of resources (milk production and deliveries to milk centres) by smallholder farmers. Qualitative data were collected using focus group discussions with 20 dairy cooperative members from each milk collection centre. Key informant interviews were conducted with chairpersons, management committee members, and dairy value chain stakeholders such as dairy associations and processors. The SWOT analysis technique was employed to identify governance structures highlighting major strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats as a gateway to isolating strategies for enhancing centre performance. An analysis of implications of the governance structures on resource allocation decision by farmers was also performed. So focus is on how boards are discharging mandate such as marketing on behalf of farmers, price setting and negotiations, trainings, and accountability to members. Such factors if executed well will see farmers increasing milk production and deliveries to MCC yielding positive results in income and profits. The study results show that poor governance mainly caused by incompetent boards and management committees was the major factor affecting performance. Other findings were that if good governance factors were in place, then cooperatives became proficient leading to their growth. Thus, cooperatives must adopt business models based on private sector partnerships to maximise on expertise and technical support. The schemes ought to take advantage of existing opportunities, especially policies that mitigate threats and improve product diversity, value addition, and effective pricing strategies. To achieve these milestones, capacity building roadmaps ought to identify competent and efficient boards.

Economic analysis of smallholder dairy cattle enterprises in Senegal.

Smallholder dairy production in Senegal is important to both livelihoods and food and nutrition security. Here, we examine the economic performance of smallholder dairy cattle enterprises in Senegal, using data from longitudinal monitoring of 113 households. The mean (and standard deviation) of the net returns (NR) per cow per annum (pcpa) was 21.7 (202.9) USD, whilst the NR per household herd per annum (phpa) was 106.1 (1740.3) USD. Only about half (52.2%) of the dairy cattle enterprise had a positive NR. The most significant income components were milk sale followed by animal sale, whilst the most significant cost components were animal feed followed by animal purchase. When households were grouped by ranking on NRpcpa, an interesting trend was observed: whilst the mean NRpcpa showed a fairly linear increase from the lowest to highest NR groups, income and cost did not. Income and costs were both higher for the lowest and highest NR groups, in comparison to the intermediate NR groups. The mean NRs of households grouped by the main breed type they kept were not significantly different from each other, due to large variances within the breed groups. However, the mean total income and costs were significantly higher for households mainly keeping improved dairy breeds (Bos taurus or Zebu × Bos taurus crosses) in comparison to those keeping indigenous Zebu or Zebu by Guzerat crosses. This study highlights the highly variable (and often low) profitability of smallholder dairy cattle enterprise in Senegal. Further actions to address this are strongly recommended.

Fasting, food and farming: Value chains and food taboos in Ethiopia.

The impact of food taboos-often because of religion-is understudied. In Ethiopia, religious fasting by Orthodox Christians is assumed to be an important impediment for the sustainable development of a competitive dairy sector and desired higher milk consumption, especially by children. However, evidence is limited. Relying on unique data, we shed light on three major issues. First, we observe that the average annual number of fasting days that Orthodox adults are effectively adhering to is 140, less than commonly cited averages. Using this as an estimate for extrapolation, fasting is estimated to reduce annual dairy consumption by approximately 12 percent nationally. Second, farms adapt to declining milk demand during fasting by increased processing of milk into storable products-fasting contributes to larger price swings for these products. We further note continued sales of milk by non-remote farmers and reduced production-by adjusting lactation times for dairy animals-for remote farmers. Third, fasting is mostly associated with increased milk consumption by the children of dairy farmers, seemingly because of excess milk availability during fasting periods. Our results suggest that fasting habits are not a major explanation for the observed poor performance of Ethiopia's dairy sector nor low milk consumption by children. To reduce the impact of fasting on the dairy sector in Ethiopia further, investment is called for in improved milk processing, storage, and infrastructure facilities.

Dairy production in an urbanizing environment-Typology and linkages in the megacity of Bengaluru, India.

Urbanization is a main driver of agricultural transition in the Global South but how it shapes trends of intensification or extensification is not yet well understood. The Indian megacity of Bengaluru combines rapid urbanization with a high demand for dairy products, which is partly supplied by urban and peri-urban dairy producers. To study the impacts of urbanization on dairy production and to identify key features of dairy production systems across Bengaluru's rural-urban interface, 337 dairy producers were surveyed on the socio-economic profile of their household, their dairy herd and management, resources availability and, in- and output markets. A two-step cluster analysis identified four spatially explicit dairy production systems based on urbanization level of their neighborhood, reliance on self-cultivated forages, pasture use, cattle in- and outflow and share of specialized dairy genotypes. The most extensive dairy production system, common to the whole rural-urban interface, utilized publicly available feed resources and pasture grounds rather than to cultivate forages. In rural areas, two semi-intensive and one intensive dairy production systems relying on self-cultivation of forage with or without pasture further distinguished themselves by their herd and breeding management. In rural areas, the village's dairy cooperative, which also provided access to inputs such as exotic genotype through artificial insemination, concentrate feeds and health care, was often the only marketing channel available to dairy producers, irrespective of the dairy production system to which they belonged. In urban areas, milk was mostly sold through direct marketing or a middleman. Despite rapidly progressing urbanization and a population of 10 million, Bengaluru's dairy sector still relies on small-scale family dairy farms. Shifts in resources availability, such as land and labor, are potential drivers of market-oriented intensification but also extensification of dairy production in an urbanizing environment.

Beverage milk consumption patterns in the United States: Who is substituting from dairy to plant-based beverages?

This research used a survey of 995 US households to explore how dairy milk and plant-based beverage substitutes were consumed. Long-term trends of declining beverage milk consumption have been exacerbated in recent years by increasing consumption of plant-based beverages. Although beverage milk consumption has been declining, total dairy consumption in the United States continues to increase, driven by growth in sales of cheese, butter, and yogurt. Using k-means cluster analysis, 3 consumption clusters for US households were identified. The largest cluster, consisting of 61.6% of households, consumed dairy milk with some regularity and consumed little or no plant-based beverages. A second cluster, flexitarian households, consisting of 15.6% of respondent households, frequently consumed both dairy milk and plant-based beverages. The third cluster, plant-based consumers, consisting of 22.8% of households, consumed almost exclusively plant-based beverages. Examining differences in demographics between clusters, flexitarian households were larger, more likely to include young children, more likely to include a vegetarian or vegan, and more liberal than traditional dairy-consuming households. Plant-based households had many similarities to flexitarian households. The flexitarian and plant-based clusters were willing to substitute plant-based beverages for dairy milk for almost all consumption uses.

Application of the Farm Simulation Model approach on economic loss estimation due to Coronavirus (COVID-19) in Bangladesh dairy farms-strategies, options, and way forward.

The objective of this paper is to quantify the economic loss of the dairy farms due to the pandemic novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) infection by analyzing the real-time data of two typical farms (BD-2 and BD-14 cow) in Bangladesh and propose a strategic plan of action to make policy decisions in order to support the dairy industry. The International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN) Farm Simulation Approach and Technology Impact Policy Impact Calculations (TIPICAL) model was used considering with Corona (WC) and without Corona (WOC). The Integrated Dairy Research Network (IDRN) database (January 2019 to July 2020) was used for simulation of IFCN two typical farms. The milk price is decreased by 17% and feed price is increased by 3.7% due to COVID-19 in March which was used as the base for farm simulation. This resulted in a decrease in milk yield by 7.9% and 8.9% for small household and family farms, respectively. The cost of milk production increased by 19.10% and 10.9% for household and family farms, respectively. This has an overall negative impact on farm income which accounted for national economic loss from dairy farms in Bangladesh to 4.43 million USD/day (36.84 crore BDT). This loss has been fluctuated from April onward and was higher in June (3.83 million USD/day) due to a combination of COVID-19, flood, and seasonality effect on lowering milk production. At the same time, the farmers' response to the resilience capacity (liquidity, operating profit margin, and financial performance) to combat COVID-19-induced situation has been declined substantially. Based on this, we conclude that the government might take a strategy to support farmers by providing financial support for increasing the operating capital and decreasing the cost of milk production. The outcome of this study is expected to be beneficial for policymakers, farmers, and processors in Bangladesh and similar other countries elsewhere.

The dairy sector in the Azores Islands: possibilities and main constraints towards increased added value.

The Azores archipelago is the most suitable region for dairy production in Portugal, representing 30% of the overall Portuguese dairy production. It has a production system characterized by an average milk yield of 6216 kg/cow/year, and the predominance of pasture-based feeding and cows that have longer productive lives and lower incidence of metabolic/production diseases, such as acidosis or mastitis. The biggest problem with the Azores Islands dairy sector is the cost of transport, as the main markets are located in continental Portugal, over 1500 km away, and local dairy products have to compete with dairy products produced in mainland Portugal and in the rest of the European Union. Herein, the evolution of the dairy sector in the Azores Islands from 2007 to 2017 is presented. A SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, and Threat) analysis was performed to find potential solutions to increase the value of the Azorean dairy sector. The most relevant solution considered was the valorization of the dairy production through three major aspects: higher milk quality, namely, better organoleptic properties; lower carbon footprint (not considering transport costs); and higher levels of animal welfare. Three examples are shown of such valorization: protected denomination of origin (PDO) cheeses, the "happy cows" program, and the production of an organic milk, from the Terceira Island. Some of these programs are relatively recent, so, it will be interesting to see how their sales and acceptance by consumers evolve, particularly under the current economic framework.

A framework for the socio-economic evaluation of rearing systems of dairy calves with or without cow contact.

Interest in dairy calf rearing systems with cow-calf contact during the milk feeding period is increasing among farmers, advisors and researchers, but socio-economic consequences have only scarcely been investigated yet. In this research reflection we develop a suggestion for a socio-economic methodical framework that is suitable for the wide variation of cow calf rearing systems, farm, market and societal conditions. Based on a literature based, system-theoretical structuring of involved elements, and on full cost accounting in an exemplary case study concerning two model farms, we itemize monetary factors, and additionally important non-monetary factors, that should be included in a socio-economic evaluation. This process also revealed further research needs. We propose as a next research step to gather a greater number of real farm data including different rearing systems and to perform individual full cost accountings, in order to identify input and output patterns on this basis. This might not only help to provide a robust basis for economic decision making, but also help to fill research gaps concerning long-term effects of calf rearing with cow contact. In addition, ways should be explored on how to take non-monetary effects into account.

Refining consumer attitudes to milk and dairy product purchase and use to reduce food waste and improve animal welfare on-farm.

This Research Reflection raises awareness of the need to broaden perspectives and levels of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches when considering on-farm dairy cattle welfare. It starts with a brief overview of current animal welfare issues on dairy farms and how they are perceived by different stakeholders. Some divergences in points of view are discussed in more detail and the first steps in networking are mentioned. Particular emphasis is given to both milk and dairy product waste in industrialized countries and the potential effects of its reduction on changes in the production system. The needs for a quantification of such quota and retailer involvement are also analyzed from the perspective that on-farm animal welfare is directly linked to the amount of milk that might be removed from the food chain by adoption of welfare-friendly management, such as cow-calf systems.

MILK Symposium Introduction: Dairy production in developing countries.

In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), dairy production is highly valued, and demand for milk is projected to continue to increase markedly over the next few decades. This presents a tremendous opportunity to improve the nutrition, health, incomes, and livelihoods of millions of people with the high-quality protein and bioavailable micronutrients in dairy products. However, low dairy consumption levels, due to low affordability, accessibility, and availability, still typify several LMICs. This is caused by inadequate feeding, management, and genetics; poor transport, cooling, and processing infrastructure; unconducive policy environments; and sociocultural and demographic factors. Strategies to address some of these factors were presented at the MILK Symposium hosted by the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems during the 2019 American Dairy Science Association Annual Meeting. The papers presented are full manuscripts in this Special Issue of the Journal of Dairy Science. They address the importance of dairy products for human health, strategies to address feed, management, health, and food safety challenges in dairy production systems, and sustainability of dairy production in LMICs. They collectively show how strategic interventions can lead to marked improvements in dairy production in developing countries. These will ultimately contribute to meeting the growing global demand for milk and to achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

The transforming dairy sector in Ethiopia.

In the transformation of agri-food systems in developing countries, we usually see rapid changes in the dairy sector. However, good data for understanding patterns and inclusiveness of this transformation are often lacking. This is important given implications for policy design and service and technology provision towards better performing dairy sectors in these settings. Relying on a combination of unique diverse large-scale datasets and methods, we analyze transformation patterns in the dairy value chain supplying Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, the second most populous country in Africa. Over the last decade, we note a rapid increase in expenditures on dairy products by urban consumers, especially among the better-off. Relatedly, the number of dairy processing firms in Ethiopia tripled over the same period, supplying a significant part of these dairy products, especially pasteurized milk, to the city's residents. Upstream at the production level, we find improved access to livestock services, higher adoption of cross-bred cows, an increase in milk yields, expanding liquid milk markets, a sizable urban farm sector supplying almost one-third of all liquid milk consumed in the city, and an upscaling process with larger commercial dairy farms becoming more prevalent. However, average milk yields are still low and not all dairy farmers are included in this transformation process. Small farms with dairy animals as well as those in more remote areas benefit less from access to services and adopt less these modern practices. For these more disadvantaged farmers, stagnation in milk yields and even declines-depending on the data source used-are observed.

Reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance genes in retail raw milk.

BACKGROUND: It has been estimated that at least 3% of the USA population consumes unpasteurized (raw) milk from animal sources, and the demand to legalize raw milk sales continues to increase. However, consumption of raw milk can cause foodborne illness and be a source of bacteria containing transferrable antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the microbiome and antibiotic resistome in both raw and processed milk, we systematically analyzed 2034 retail milk samples including unpasteurized milk and pasteurized milk via vat pasteurization, high-temperature-short-time pasteurization, and ultra-pasteurization from the United States using complementary culture-based, 16S rRNA gene, and metagenomic sequencing techniques. RESULTS: Raw milk samples had the highest prevalence of viable bacteria which were measured as all aerobic bacteria, coliform, and Escherichia coli counts, and their microbiota was distinct from other types of milk. 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that Pseudomonadaceae dominated raw milk with limited levels of lactic acid bacteria. Among all milk samples, the microbiota remained stable with constant bacterial populations when stored at 4 °C. In contrast, storage at room temperature dramatically enriched the bacterial populations present in raw milk samples and, in parallel, significantly increased the richness and abundance of ARGs. Metagenomic sequencing indicated raw milk possessed dramatically more ARGs than pasteurized milk, and a conjugation assay documented the active transfer of blaCMY-2, one ceftazidime resistance gene present in raw milk-borne E. coli, across bacterial species. The room temperature-enriched resistome differed in raw milk from distinct geographic locations, a difference likely associated with regionally distinct milk microbiota. CONCLUSION: Despite advertised "probiotic" effects, our results indicate that raw milk microbiota has minimal lactic acid bacteria. In addition, retail raw milk serves as a reservoir of ARGs, populations of which are readily amplified by spontaneous fermentation. There is an increased need to understand potential food safety risks from improper transportation and storage of raw milk with regard to ARGs. Video Abstract.

Consumer desires and perceptions of lactose-free milk.

Fluid milk consumption has declined in the United States, but lactose-free dairy milk (LFM) sales have steadily increased. It is important to understand how consumers perceive LFM and what consumers value when purchasing LFM. This study characterized consumer perceptions and preferences for LFM. Three 1.5-h focus groups (n = 25), an online survey (n = 331), trained panel descriptive analysis, and a consumer acceptance taste test (n = 160) were conducted with LFM consumers. Focus groups were evaluated by frequency of responses. From the focus group findings, we found that price was a primary choice driver of LFM. Habit and flavor familiarity with cow milk were a major driver of selection of LFM over plant-based alternatives for consumers. Higher sweetness and lower viscosity were the primary sensory differences between LFM and traditional milk, and were viewed negatively in general. The online survey included Kano questions, maximum difference scaling, and an adaptive choice-based conjoint. The data gathered from these techniques provided insight into the perceptions and purchase habits of consumers. Kano data demonstrated consumer attitudes toward the presence or absence of product attributes. The maximum difference scaling scaled the importance of product attributes to consumers. An adaptive choice-based conjoint provided insight into consumer purchase habits by simulating a purchase decision through an online interface. The attributes evaluated included price, packaging material, package size, lactose removal method, shelf life, sweetness, texture, nutrition claims, and label claims. Survey responses were analyzed by univariate and multivariate statistics. Survey results quantitatively confirmed many focus group observations. Price, texture, sweetness, shelf life, and package size were the most important attributes to LFM consumers. A low price, ultrapasteurized LFM in a half-gallon cardboard package was the ideal LFM. Descriptive analysis of 9 commercial LFM followed by consumer acceptance testing was conducted. External preference mapping was conducted with trained panel and consumer acceptance results. Consumer acceptance testing of commercial LFM revealed 3 consumer clusters with distinct preferences for LFM flavor and texture. High sweet taste was a driver of liking for the overall population, and eggy flavor and viscosity were drivers of disliking. Knowledge of consumer preferences for LFM will provide actionable insights for new product development within the dairy industry for this market segment.

Estimating the combined costs of clinical and subclinical ketosis in dairy cows.

Clinical ketosis (CK) and subclinical ketosis (SCK) are associated with lower milk production, lower reproductive performance, an increased culling of cows and an increased probability of other disorders. Quantifying the costs related to ketosis will enable veterinarians and farmers to make more informed decisions regarding the prevention and treatment of the disease. The overall aim of this study was to estimate the combined costs of CK and SCK using assumptions and input variables from a typical Dutch context. A herd level dynamic stochastic simulation model was developed, simulating 385 herds with 130 cows each. In the default scenario there was a CK probability of almost 1% and a SCK probability of 11%. The herds under the no risk scenario had no CK and SCK, while the herds under the high-risk scenario had a doubled probability of CK and SCK compared to the default scenario. The results from the simulation model were used to estimate the annual cash flows of the herds, including the costs related to milk production losses, treatment, displaced abomasum, mastitis, calf management, culling and feed, as well as the returns from sales of milk and calves. The difference between the annual net cash flows of farms in the no risk scenario and the default scenario provides the estimate of the herd level costs of ketosis. Average herd level costs of ketosis (CK and SCK combined) were €3,613 per year for a default farm and €7,371 per year for a high-risk farm. The costs for a single CK case were on average €709 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €64 and €1,196, respectively), while the costs for a single SCK case were on average €150 (with 5 and 95 percentiles of €18 and €422, respectively) for the default farms. The differences in costs between cases occurred due to differences between cases (e.g., cow culled vs cow not culled, getting another disease vs not getting another disease).

Use of auctions to assess consumer value for fresh and end-of-code milk.

The objective of this study was to survey consumers' milk purchasing behavior and investigate the effect of sensory experiences and an educational message on the perceived value of fluid milk at the beginning and near the end of code. Eleven auction sessions were carried out (n = 100 consumers), which included an explanation of the experiment, a survey about demographics and milk purchasing and consumption, sensory evaluation, an educational message, and 3 rounds of nth price auctions. Consumers were blindly served 2 pairs of milk samples from white-pigmented high-density polyethylene [2% and skim milk within 2 to 3 d of production (fresh) and 2% and skim milk with 2 to 3 d until the end of code (near-end)], and asked to indicate their preference and the level of acceptability for each sample using a 7-point hedonic scale. All samples were simultaneously evaluated by a panel of 8 judges who were trained to evaluate milk quality attributes on a 15 cm unstructured line scale. Results from the consumer panel acceptability rating session, trained panel descriptive analysis, and consumer auction bids were analyzed using multivariate factor analysis of variance. Subjecting pre- and post-survey responses to k means cluster analysis revealed 4 bidding populations in each round. Most participants (82%) indicated that they check the code date on milk every time they shop; 77% said they reached for the code date that was farthest out every time. However, on blind tasting, consumers did not prefer fresh over near-end milk. These findings were in agreement with their acceptability scores for fresh 2% (5.0/7.0), near-end 2% (5.2/7.0), fresh skim (4.5/7.0), and near-end skim (4.6/7.0) milks. Trained panelists did not detect a difference in "lacks freshness" flavor in fresh skim (1.9 cm/15.0 cm) or near-end skim milk (1.3 cm). Surprisingly, trained panelists did detect higher "lacks freshness" flavor in 1 lot of fresh 2% (2.3 cm) compared with near-end 2% milk (0.3 cm). When consumers bid on half gallons of milk with visible code dates, fresh skim was valued $0.27 higher than near-end skim, and fresh 2% was valued $0.29 higher than near-end 2%. After blind sensory evaluation, the margin between the fresh and near-end bids decreased to almost zero (fresh skim was valued only $0.03 more than near-end skim; near-end 2% was valued $0.01 more than fresh 2%). After the educational message about the meaning of code dates, consumer bids for near-end ($0.63) and fresh milk ($0.81) decreased compared with the first round of bidding ($0.74 and $1.01, respectively). Additionally, the margin in bids for fresh milk remained numerically higher than those for near-end milk ($0.15 for 2% and $0.21 for skim). The educational message about code date did not have the intended result of increasing consumer value for milk. Although consumers go out of their way to buy the freshest milk, they cannot necessarily distinguish fresh milk from milk at the end of code; consumers appear to value a code date that was farther out more than superior taste, even after a sensory experience and educational message.

The economic value of days open in Holstein cows in Japan based on simulated changes in conception rate.

Increasing herd-life length and culling parity with increasing conception rate (CR) is necessary to increase lifetime profit from dairy cow production. Economic values of days open (DO) were determined by calculating changes in fertility traits, herd-life length, and milk yield when the simulated CR were changed in increments of 1% from -5% to 5% from the basal levels, which were obtained for Hokkaido and regions other than Hokkaido separately. When CR increased, number of artificial inseminations, DO, and milking length decreased. Furthermore, culling parity, and annual milk yield increased. Herd-life length increased in Hokkaido and decreased in the other regions. The economic values of CR were 1,623.8 to 946.8 yen and of DO were 857.4 to 399.0 yen. Relative economic values of milk yield to days open per genetic standard deviation were higher in the other regions than in Hokkaido where the economic effect of selection for DO was expected to be equal to selection for 305-day milk yield and herd life. If the survival rate of multipara cows in the other regions increases, then the economic value of DO would similarly increase in Hokkaido.

Symposium review: Why revisit dairy cattle productive lifespan?

Dairy cattle productive lifespan averages approximately 3 yr after first calving. Changes in the last decade in reproductive performance, genetic merit, and societal concerns regarding animal welfare and the environmental footprint of dairy products warrant a critical review of decision making regarding dairy cattle productive lifespan. The objective of this study is to provide such a review. Economic decision making drives the majority of culling decisions and, by extension, dairy cattle productive lifespan. Historically, models focused on optimizing replacement decisions for individual cows found economically optimal productive lifespans of 40 mo or more. However, cow performance and prices have changed and the average findings of these models may no longer hold. Management and housing may affect productive lifespan through improvements in health care and cow comfort. Improvements in reproductive efficiency and the availability of sexed semen are leading to an abundance of dairy heifers on many dairy farms, which often results in shorter productive lifespans in herds of fixed sizes. There is also a growing interest in the use of beef semen in dairy cattle, which does not add to the supply of dairy heifers. Acceleration of genetic gain due to genomic testing should likely result in shorter productive lifespans. Younger herds capitalize on genetic progress but have fewer efficient mature cows and have greater replacement costs. Extending dairy cattle productive lifespan might decrease the environmental footprint of milk production because fewer heifers need to be raised. Short productive lifespans, especially as a result of much forced culling early in lactation, are often signs of reduced welfare. Possible extensions of productive lifespan through improved welfare may alleviate public concerns about dairy production, although longer productive lifespans for healthy cows are not necessarily more profitable. A simple model of the economically optimal productive lifespan illustrates the tradeoffs between herd replacement cost, maturity and aging costs, genetic opportunity cost, and calf value opportunity cost. Combined, these factors suggest that an average productive lifespan of approximately 5 yr is warranted. In conclusion, increases in genetic gain, reproductive efficiency, cow comfort, and health care will increase the opportunity of herd managers to change productive lifespan to increase profitability, improve societal acceptance of dairy production, or both.

Economic and environmental effects of double cropping winter annuals and corn using the Integrated Farm System Model.

Dairy farms have been under pressure to reduce negative environmental impacts while remaining profitable during times with volatile milk and commodity prices. Double cropping has been promoted to reduce negative environmental impacts and increase total dry matter yield per hectare. Three dairy farms that double cropped winter annuals and corn were selected from northern and western Pennsylvania. Data were collected from recorded crop and dairy records and financial data for 2016 and 2017. Farms ranged in size from 336 to 511 ha with 233 to 663 cows. Data were used to set parameters for the Integrated Farm System Model, which was then used to simulate 8 scenarios for each farm: current operation; 0, 50, and 100% of corn hectares double cropped; 30% feed price increase with and without double cropping; and 30% feed price decrease with and without double cropping at the farm's current level of double cropping. A 20-yr time period, using weather data that was representative of the actual farms, was used in the Integrated Farm System Model simulation to produce both financial and environmental outputs. Double cropping winter annuals and corn silage increased dry matter yield per hectare by 19%, when comparing 0 to 100% of the corn area double cropped. With all corn land double cropped, net return to management per hundredweight (45.36 kg) of milk increased by 1.8%, N leached per hectare per year decreased by an average of 4.5%, and phosphorus loss was reduced by an average of 9.2% across farms. When feed prices increased by 30%, double cropping increased net return over feed cost and net return to management by 1.6 and 2.2%, respectively, across farms. When feed prices decreased by 30%, double cropping decreased net return over feed cost and net return to management by smaller amounts of 0.13% and 0.11%, respectively, across farms. Modeling indicated that double cropping winter annuals with corn silage can have both environmental and economic benefits when winter-annual silage yields are enough to cover expenses.

Symposium review: An abundance of replacement heifers: What is the economic impact of raising more than are needed?

Historically, most dairy producers raised every heifer born, to ensure a supply of future replacements. However, advancements in transition and reproductive management, coupled with widespread use of sex-sorted semen in dairy heifers and cows, have led to an oversupply of dairy replacement heifers in the United States. With current market values for prepartum heifers at $1,300 and estimated raising costs ranging from $1,700 to $2,400, dairies that continue to produce quantities of heifers in excess of anticipated needs with plans of selling the extras on the open market are likely to experience significant economic loss. Adult cow herd turnover is the key driver behind the number of heifers needed to calve; however, mortality, disease, fertility, and elective culling losses throughout the heifer-raising period determine the total number of heifers that must be retained and raised to meet anticipated needs. A convenience sample of 50 US dairy herds revealed an average heifer inventory of 102% of total milking and dry cows. In this data set, the mean annualized adult herd turnover was 39%. With a mean stillbirth risk of 5.7% in calving heifers, a culling risk of 10.2% by 13 mo of age, a reproductive failure risk of 6.8% in breeding heifers, and an additional culling risk of 6.4% in pregnant heifers, only 74% of calving events with a heifer birth yielded a heifer that entered the lactating herd. Much of this heifer removal was elective, and making the correct culling decisions at the appropriate time yields the best return for the herd. To demonstrate how a herd might approach the elective culling issue, a records-based exercise with 2 large Holstein herds was performed to estimate the cost versus benefit of 3 different elective culling approaches, using a combination of genetic potential and growth performance as the selective criteria. However, the culling of heifers results in economic losses, because the revenue received is less than the cost incurred during raising. Selective culling of heifers soon after weaning yielded the best results in both herds, but despite the predicted improvement in lactation performance of the retained group, the cost associated with removal was greater than the benefit predicted. Culling a group early and then culling a second group just before calving yielded the largest loss. Moving forward, herds should breed more carefully to produce better-quality heifers from more superior dams and sires and consider the use of beef semen in inferior animals. However, to reduce the risk of not producing an adequate supply of replacement heifers, dairies should add an additional buffer to their anticipated needs. Using the assumptions within this project, having 10% extra calving events with a heifer birth would allow the annualized adult herd turnover to rise from 39 to 43% in case economic conditions or health status of the herd should change. If these heifers are not needed, the selection criteria outline could be used to help identify more valuable animals to retain.

US toddler milk sales and associations with marketing practices.

OBJECTIVE: Extensive marketing of 'toddler milks' (sugar-sweetened milk-based drinks for toddlers) promotes unsubstantiated product benefits and raises concerns about consumption by young children. The present study documents trends in US toddler milk sales and assesses relationships with brand and category marketing. DESIGN: We report annual US toddler milk and infant formula sales and marketing from 2006 to 2015. Sales response models estimate associations between marketing (television advertising spending, product price, number of retail displays) and volume sales of toddler milks by brand and category. SETTING: US Nielsen retail scanner sales and advertising spending data from 2006 to 2015. PARTICIPANTS: Researchers analysed all Universal Product Codes (n 117·4 million) sold by seven infant formula and eight toddler milk brands from 2006 to 2015. RESULTS: Advertising spending on toddler milks increased fourfold during this 10-year period and volume sales increased 2·6 times. In contrast, advertising spending and volume sales of infant formulas declined. Toddler milk volume sales were positively associated with television advertising and retail displays, and negatively associated with price, at both the brand and category levels. CONCLUSIONS: Aggressive marketing of toddler milks has likely contributed to rapid sales increases in the USA. However, these sugar-sweetened drinks are not recommended for toddler consumption. Health-care providers, professional organizations and public health campaigns should provide clear guidance and educate parents to reduce toddler milk consumption and address misperceptions about their benefits. These findings also support the need to regulate marketing of toddler milks in countries that prohibit infant formula marketing to consumers.